Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) is designed to ensure every student receives the instruction and support they need to succeed. As schools continue to serve growing populations of multilingual learners, there is an opportunity to strengthen MTSS by more intentionally addressing their unique strengths and learning needs. Although research on multilingual learners within MTSS continues to grow, relatively few resources place multilingual learners at the center of MTSS implementation (Rodríguez Robles et al., 2025). As a result, many existing resources provide broad guidance that can be difficult to apply to the unique contexts of multilingual learners, underscoring the need for more targeted approaches that recognize students’ linguistic and cultural assets.
Creating effective MTSS systems for multilingual learners begins with understanding the difference between language development and academic learning. As students develop English proficiency, their language growth can sometimes be mistaken for academic difficulty, leading educators to overlook the knowledge, skills, and experiences students already possess. Before considering additional intervention, it is important to examine whether core instruction has provided access to grade-level learning and whether students have had multiple opportunities to demonstrate what they know in linguistically appropriate ways.
An effective MTSS framework recognizes that multilingual learners develop language and academic knowledge simultaneously. Intervention decisions are strongest when they consider students’ English language proficiency, primary-language development, prior educational experiences, and access to culturally and linguistically responsive instruction. Instead of beginning with questions about the student, educators can first ask whether instruction has been accessible, responsive, and designed to build on the student’s strengths.
When schools strengthen tier 1 instruction, interpret student data through the lens of language development, and coordinate supports across core instruction, English language development, and intervention, MTSS becomes a system that fully leverages multilingual learners’ strengths. In doing so, schools create learning environments where intervention expands access, builds on students’ assets, and accelerates both language development and academic growth.
Strengthening tier 1 before intervention
Many difficulties that we attribute to individual students actually reflect gaps in instructional access and opportunity, not gaps in student ability. Research on MTSS for multilingual learners supports this viewpoint: high-quality, culturally, and linguistically aligned instruction at tier 1 is essential before students are considered for more intensive supports (Brown et al., 2024).
When tier 1 is not designed with multilingual learners in mind, intervention systems can become overwhelmed with students who should never have required tier 2 or tier 3 supports in the first place. Similarly, Gonzalez et al. (2022) argue that MTSS can only achieve its promise of equity when culturally and linguistically responsive practices are integrated throughout the entire system, rather than being added as an afterthought.
This changes the question from "Why is this student not responding?" to "How accessible is our instruction, and how do we know?" For multilingual learners, tier 1 must include meaningful language development, access to grade-level content, and opportunities to use language for thinking, collaboration, and meaning-making.
| Tier 1 feature | What it looks in the classroom |
| Grade-level content with explicit language supports | Students engage with complex texts, rich ideas, and meaningful tasks while receiving language supports that maintain rigor. Explicit language supports can include scaffolding techniques, sentence stems, and modeling language use in context. Incorporating visuals and graphic organizers can greatly enhance comprehension, as these tools help students organize their thoughts and understand complex concepts visually. |
| Meaning making opportunities | Students have the opportunity to activate background knowledge with visuals, quick writes, and discussion prompts before reading. Teachers teach vocabulary inside the genre and task, not as isolated word lists. This involves introducing key terms in context and using methods such as visual aids, contextual examples, and interactive activities to ensure students grasp the vocabulary in different contexts. |
| Structured talk and collaboration | Students rehearse ideas with partners, build on each other’s language, and use oral language before writing. |
| Translanguaging and transfer | Teachers strategically incorporate students’ primary languages to foster a more supportive learning environment and validate their linguistic backgrounds. |
| Formative assessment of language | Teachers integrate formative assessment for multilingual learners into daily instruction and intentionally assesses both content understanding and language development. Teachers can gather evidence through a variety of modalities like discussions, collaborative tasks, writing, visuals, and students’ use of primary languages when appropriate. Timely feedback should to be provided, and data should be used to determine the next instructional steps. Effective formative assessment engages students in self- and peer-assessment, and positions students as active participants in monitoring their own growth (Cardenas & Heritage, n.d.). |
| Family and community connection | Teachers make authentic connections to students’ cultural knowledge enriches the learning experience, as it helps relate new content to their lived experiences and promotes engagement. |
When these practices are consistently embedded into core instruction, fewer students require additional intervention because more students can access rigorous learning from the start.
Using the PLUSS framework to strengthen core instruction
One practical framework for strengthening tier 1 instruction is the PLUSS Framework. This framework provides educators with a practical, research-based approach to enhance tier 1 instruction for multilingual learners. It is not a separate program; rather, it serves as an overlay that strengthens instruction already in place by aligning it to students’ linguistic, cultural, and experiential resources (Brown et al., 2024).
P—Pre-teach and prime: Build background knowledge before introducing new learning. Connect instruction to students’ experiences while teaching essential vocabulary within meaningful contexts instead of isolated word lists. Research suggests that explicit instruction in contextual analysis supports students in using surrounding text and prior knowledge to determine word meanings, strengthening both vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension (Ong & Padilla, 2020).
L—Language modeling and practice: Model the academic language students need, then provide structured opportunities for partner and small-group conversations so students can rehearse ideas in meaningful contexts before producing independent work.
U—Use visuals and organizers: Support comprehension through visuals, graphic organizers, gestures, real objects, bilingual glossaries, and models that make abstract concepts more concrete.
S—Systematic and explicit instruction: Provide clear modeling, guided practice, immediate feedback, and gradual release through an "I do, we do, you do" approach.
S—Strategic use of native language and culture: Encourage students to leverage their full linguistic repertoire. Translanguaging, bilingual resources, and connections across languages help students transfer existing knowledge to learn English and content.
Together, these instructional moves create classrooms where multilingual learners can fully participate in rigorous academic work while continuing to develop language.
Distinguishing language difference from learning difficulty
One of the greatest challenges for MTSS teams is determining whether a student’s performance reflects a learning difficulty or the normal process of acquiring an additional language. Without considering language development, schools risk both over-identifying multilingual learners for special education and overlooking students whose learning needs require additional support. Recent research on MTSS warns that "one-size-fits-all" approaches can overlook the unique developmental pathways of multilingual learners. This can lead educators to mistakenly interpret normal second-language acquisition as a learning disability (Rodríguez Robles et al., 2025). Such misinterpretations have serious implications; they can result in the over-identification of multilingual learners for special education services, as well as the under-identification of students whose actual learning needs are obscured by assumptions about their language status (Rodríguez Robles et al., 2025).
Additionally, Gonzalez et al. (2022) emphasize that when evaluating a student’s responsiveness to instruction, it is crucial to consider their level of English language proficiency and the language of instruction they have received. Without this context, the data we gather may not provide the insights we need to properly support our students. Before considering intervention, examine:
- English proficiency data and growth trajectory: A student’s language level affects how they access instruction and demonstrate learning.
- Home language development and literacy: Strong home-language literacy may support transfer; limited primary-language literacy may require a different plan.
- Prior schooling and attendance: Interrupted or different schooling experiences can affect performance without indicating disability.
- Quality of tier 1 and designated English language development (ELD): Students should not be referred because core instruction did not provide enough language access.
- Response to support over time: Review progress across multiple cycles and multiple data sources, not one score.
- True peer comparison: Compare progress with students who share similar language and educational experiences.
- Family and caregiver input: Families and caregivers can clarify language use, strengths, responsibilities, changes, and learning outside of school.
- ELD and intervention coordination: Ensure the student receives ELD services and academic intervention when needed. One should not replace the other.
A planning protocol for MTSS teams
Effective MTSS teams start by identifying students’ strengths, assets, and opportunities for support. This planning protocol can help teams make instructional decisions that account for both language development and academic learning. By following these six steps, schools can design supports that build on students’ existing knowledge, strengthen access to grade-level instruction, and ensure interventions are responsive to each learner’s needs (Haas & Brown, 2019).
1. Name strengths first
Begin every MTSS or data meeting by naming what the student can do, what they know, what languages they use, and what supports are already working.
2. Match the pathway
Ask whether the student is ready to transfer established home-language literacy, needs foundational literacy in the home language, needs oral language development, or needs a combination.
3. Design access before intensity
Strengthen tier 1 and tier 2 scaffolds before assuming the student requires a more intensive support.
4. Monitor growth with context
Look at grade-level benchmarks, true peer growth, language proficiency growth, work samples, observations, and family input together.
5. Coordinate services
Align core instruction, designated ELD, integrated ELD, and intervention, so students do not experience fragmented support.
6. Return to belonging
Ask whether the student has a meaningful role in the classroom community, not just a seat in the room.
Two students, two different intervention plans
The following examples illustrate the importance of individualized asset-based intervention decisions, specifically for newcomers and long-term English learners (LTELs). Both students were multilingual learners adjusting to a new culture, routines, and language. They required support from both the classroom and their families and caregivers to foster a sense of community. However, their needs were not identical, and therefore, they did not require the same intervention plan. Note, the following names have been changed for the purpose of this article.
Diego, a newcomer
Diego, a newcomer from Colombia, entered the class quietly. He was learning new routines, new expectations, and a new language all at once. In English-only tasks, he appeared hesitant and unsure. When we looked beyond English, we saw strong native language literacy and academic habits. We built on his Spanish literacy, taught for transfer, used cognates and bilingual discussion, and partnered with his family. As his confidence grew, Diego began taking academic risks, advocating for what he needed, and approaching the English proficiency level of peers with similar language experience by the end of the year.
Yaritza, a long-term English learner (LTEL)
Yaritza had attended U.S. schools for several years and was often described as a student who had "plateaued" in her English development. Although she was conversationally fluent and socially engaged, she continued to face challenges with academic language, complex texts, and grade-level writing tasks. Because she had been receiving language support for many years, some educators assumed she simply was not making progress. When we looked beyond English, we learned that Yartiza came from a multigenerational Spanish-speaking family and regularly navigated multiple languages, perspectives, and responsibilities. While these experiences strengthened her bilingualism and cultural knowledge, her assets were not always reflected in traditional academic measures. As an LTEL, she benefited from instruction that built on her existing strengths rather than focusing on perceived gaps. By connecting learning to her background knowledge, leveraging her bilingualism, explicitly teaching academic language, and partnering with her family, we created opportunities for her to engage more deeply with complex texts, writing, and discussions. Over time, Yaritza became more confident in communicating her ideas in academic conversations and writing, demonstrating the sophisticated thinking she had always possessed.
A one-size-fits-all intervention would have missed both students. Diego needed us to build on strong primary-language literacy and accelerate transfer. Yaritza needed us to leverage her bilingualism and help her strengthen her reading, writing, and academic discussion skills. In both cases, growth depended on the whole community: teachers, peers, family, and the students themselves. Diego and Yaritza are not unique. There are Diegos and Yaritzas in every classroom. The question is whether we are ready to see them—fully see them—before we make decisions about what they need.
Building MTSS systems that work for multilingual learners
An effective MTSS framework does more than identify students who need additional support; it creates the conditions that help students succeed before intensive intervention becomes necessary. When schools adopt culturally and linguistically responsive MTSS practices, intervention becomes more accurate, instruction becomes more accessible, and multilingual learners are better positioned to thrive academically while continuing to develop their linguistic strengths.
References
Brown, J. E., Sanford, A. K., & Sacco, D. (2024). Multi-tiered system of supports for multilingual learners using culturally and linguistically aligned practices. National Center on Intensive Intervention.
Cardenas, G. & Heritage, M. (n.d.). Formative assessment: A key to improving learning for English learners. English Learners Success Forum.
Gonzalez, J. E., Durán, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Jimerson, S. R. (2022). Unlocking the promise of multitiered systems of support (MTSS) for linguistically diverse students: Advancing science, practice, and equity. School Psychology Review, 51(4), 387–391.
Haas, E., & Brown, R. (2019). Supporting English learners in the classroom: Best practices to distinguish language acquisition and learning disabilities. Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University.
Ong, E. S., & Padilla, P. P. (2020). Explicit contextual and morphemic analysis instruction, vocabulary, and reading comprehension among grade four students. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature, 2(2), 75–104.
Rodríguez Robles, A., Quirk, M., Paul, M., Perez, E., McGuinness, J., Dowdy, E., Grande Gonzalez, E., Zavala Lara, C., & Draper-Rodriguez, C. (2025). Culturally and linguistically responsive MTSS: Ethical and actionable strategies for supporting multilingual learners in multi-tiered frameworks. Psychology in the Schools, 62, 3173–3183.
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