3 Principles of Structured Literacy

What is structured literacy?

Structured Literacy is a term that has become common over the past several years. Although advocates and organizations have defined it differently, it generally refers to an explicit and systematic approach to reading instruction and intervention. Conceptualizations of structured literacy point to the body of research known as the “science of reading” as its foundation. 

Structured literacy does not refer to a specific program or set of materials. Rather, structured literacy instruction is characterized by a set of instructional principles that directly teach students how to access the alphabetic code to read and spell words, as well as the linguistic knowledge needed to support understanding and learning from print. 

Efforts to operationalize structured literacy have often identified six skill areas as important instructional targets: 

• Phonological awareness: This refers to the ability to perceive the sound structure of language, including recognizing that spoken words consist of smaller units of sound (e.g., syllables, phonemes), and the ability to segment spoken words into individual speech sounds (phonemes) or blend sounds into words. Phonemic awareness (i.e., the ability to isolate, blend, and segment individual speech sounds) is important for learning to read and spell.
• Letter-sound correspondence: This refers to learning the sounds (phonemes) associated with individual letters and letter combinations (e.g., digraphs, trigraphs). The interaction of phonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledge makes it possible to decode (i.e., read) and encode (i.e., spell) written words, and the integration of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence is a defining feature of phonics instruction.
• Orthographic knowledge: In reading instruction, orthographic knowledge is most often used to describe students’ familiarity of word spellings, including word parts (e.g., letter units, syllables, affixes) and whole words. Orthographic knowledge accumulates through explicit and systematic instruction and practice in decoding, spelling, and reading text. “Orthographic mapping” refers to the formation of links between word spellings and pronunciations, which, over time, make it possible to read words fluently and with little conscious effort.
• Morphology: Morphemes are the smallest parts of words that hold meaning. Skills in this area involve learning the pronunciation of prefixes, suffixes, and root words, and developing knowledge of the meaning and use of these word parts. For example, the prefix “pre” usually means before. Morphology and syllable reading enable the ability to read multisyllabic words and connect them to meaning.
• Syntax: Learning how words are sequenced in phrases and sentences, obtaining meaning from word sequences, and the knowledge of how word order affects meaning. This skill is essential for reading comprehension and written expression.
• Semantics: Learning the meanings of words and how they are used, which also includes the meaning of word phrases and sentences. Closely tied to syntax, semantic knowledge is essential for understanding and learning from what we read.

How these skills are taught defines structured literacy. As will be discussed later, these skills should be taught in integrated, cohesive ways, not siloed into specific time blocks. The extent to which they are emphasized varies by grade level and students’ level of literacy acquisition. 

What are the principles of structured literacy?

Structured literacy is best characterized by a core set of instructional principles of how the instruction is delivered:

1. Explicit instruction: Instruction that directly teaches information using clear exemplars, modeling and demonstration, and supported and monitored practice opportunities. Explicit instruction may also be referred to as “direct” instruction. There are central features to explicit instruction:

   The “model-lead-test” or “I do – we do – you do” sequence, whereby the teacher clearly demonstrates or models a new skill using an exemplar (“I do”), leads students in demonstrating the skill together (“we do”), then provides opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice the skill independently (“you do”).

   Immediate Feedback: Humans learn best when we receive feedback on whether our responses are correct and what to do differently when they are incorrect. In explicit instruction, students receive affirmative or corrective feedback on their responses. Feedback is provided immediately. Affirmative feedback need only be a simple “good” or “yes” following a correct response, which is important when skills are new or insecure, and can be faded as students develop independence with the skill. Corrective feedback on errors should also be immediate and can consist of having the student try again or of modeling the correct response, after which the student is given a chance to try again.

   Frequent opportunities to respond and practice: Good instruction is based on having abundant opportunities for students to practice skills. In reading instruction, this means that students should have time to read every day. Practice should be monitored closely when skills are new and developing, so students should be reading aloud as much as possible to provide feedback. Independent practice is appropriate as students are developing proficiency.

2. Systematic instruction: Instruction that is systematic follows a planned, logical sequence in which foundational skills are taught first, and skills increase in complexity over time. Practice materials are aligned with the skills students have been taught so far. Review of previously taught skills and content occurs regularly throughout instruction. The degree to which a program is systematic can be evaluated based on an accompanying scope and sequence chart.
3. Data-driven: Instruction and practice are customized and responsive based on student data. This is sometimes referred to as “diagnostic” teaching. Classwide assessments (e.g., universal screening data) are used to inform large-group instruction and address skill gaps demonstrated by many students, to inform instructional groupings, and to identify students who need more individualized support. Ongoing progress monitoring data are collected more frequently with students receiving interventions, which informs the extent to which they are benefiting or when interventions need to be adjusted or intensified. 

How do the core principles of a structured literacy approach work together?

In the structured literacy approach, the core principles of instruction are present across grade levels and instructional settings. The principles are interconnected. New skills and content are introduced according to a systematic scope and sequence, using explicit and cumulative instruction that provides extensive opportunities for supported practice (with feedback). Periodic assessments inform when instruction should advance or slow down, when more review is needed, when instructional groupings can be adjusted, and when teacher monitoring of practice can be faded in favor of more opportunities for independent practice or partner work. 

How do the principles of structured literacy tie into the six components?

In all literacy instruction (not just structured literacy), skills should be taught in an integrated way as much as possible. The six skills often referred to as targets in structured literacy (phonological awareness, letter-sound association, orthography, morphemes, syntax, and semantics) should not be taught in isolation, such as in dedicated blocks of time. Rather, skills should be integrated and synthesized so that students see how they work together, and so that meaningful practice opportunities occur. 

For example, consider a first-grade lesson in which the “ch” letter combination is taught. 

Phonemic awareness: The lesson might begin in which the teacher explicitly teaches the ch sound. The teacher might begin by displaying ch, modeling its sound (“I do"), prompting the students to say the sound in unison with the teacher (“we do”), then asking individual students to say the sound (“you do”). Affirmative and corrective feedback are provided immediately following student responses.

Letter-sound association: Then the teacher might address phonology by leading students in orally segmenting and blending 2-3 words with the /ch/ phoneme, including words with /ch/ as the initial sound (e.g., chat, chase) or ending sound (e.g., beach, lunch). It is also possible for these phoneme segmenting and blending exercises to immediately precede teaching the sound for ch.

Decoding and spelling: Next, the teacher would immediately lead students in explicit instruction in which students decode (i.e., sound out) a list of words that contain the ch letter combination. This instruction simultaneously develops and reinforces students’ skills in phonemic awareness, letter-sound correspondence, and orthographic knowledge. 6-10 words are displayed on the whiteboard, including words they previously segmented and blended orally. Decoding instruction adheres to the explicit instruction sequence for each word:

1. Model/“I do”: The teacher models by sounding out the first word (pointing to each letter or letter combination while saying its sound), then blending the sounds to read the word as a whole.
2. Lead/“we do”: The teacher leads the students in sounding out the first word in unison, and together they blend the sounds to read the whole word. The teacher listens and provides affirmative and corrective feedback to the group for correct responses, and provides corrective feedback for any incorrect letter-sound correspondences or inaccurate blending attempts.
3. Test/”you do”: The teacher asks individual students to sound out the first word. Affirmative and corrective feedback are provided immediately following student responses.
4. Steps 1-3 repeat with each word in the list.
5. After the words in the list have been read, students are given the opportunity to spell a few of the ch words they just read (with the word list out of view). The teacher would say the word, emphasize the sounds, and ask students to write the word in their workbooks or mini whiteboards. The teacher would then sound out the word while spelling it in view of the students, ask them to compare their spelling to the model, fix any errors, and read the word again. Corrective feedback is provided to individual students as needed.
6. The teacher might then review by pointing to words in the list in a random order, as the students read each one in unison. The teacher provides affirmative and corrective feedback, and more frequently points to words that students read or spelled incorrectly in previous steps.

You will notice that this decoding and spelling instruction integrates phonemic skills (segmenting and blending phonemes) with letter-sound correspondence, thereby strengthening each skill and demonstrating how they work together to read and spell words. Instruction and practice in decoding, spelling, and reading words and connected text builds students’ orthographic knowledge. 

• Sentence reading practice: Next, the teacher might lead students in a reading practice session, in which they read short sentences containing words with the ch letter combination. The teacher might read the sentences in unison with the students, then give the students the opportunity to read them, providing affirmative and corrective feedback as needed. Practice involves reading each sentence several times to build fluency. Sentence reading supports syntax development. Semantic and morphological knowledge is built through discussions of the meanings of the words and sentences that students read.
• Passage reading practice: Then students might be given the opportunity to read a short passage in a partner-reading activity, using a passage that includes a few examples of ch words. As one student reads aloud the partner follows along, then the students trade roles. They continue practicing in this way while the teacher circulates among the groups, providing support and feedback as needed. Reading connected text provides more opportunities for building familiarity with syntax and semantic knowledge. 

After the students have each had a chance to read the passage two or three times, the teacher might further lead the class in a discussion about the passage, including identifying its main idea, making inferences, and connecting the events in the passage to students’ knowledge and experiences, further building semantic knowledge. 

In this example, morphemes (in terms of affixes) were not directly targeted. It might be targeted at a different time, and certainly later as students begin learning to read more complex words. As in the example above, morpheme skills would be integrated into instruction in reading and spelling words, and in reading and discussing texts. 

Practical strategies aligned to the principles of structured literacy

Example strategies that reflect explicit instruction

• Clearly name the learning focus (e.g., a letter or letter combination, affix, sentence feature, identifying main idea) before instruction begins.
• Use clear, precise, and unambiguous language and demonstration to connect sounds to letters, decode and spell words, and link words and word parts to meanings.
• Lead students in unison responding and independent practice opportunities
• Model how to identify meaning, make inferences, and connect to background knowledge and experience thinking aloud and demonstrating correct usage.
• Provide immediate affirmative, and corrective feedback for students’ responses.
• Aim for abundant opportunities for students to interact with print (e.g., identifying letter sounds, reading words, spelling, reading and writing text). Student responses to print should be more frequent than “teacher talk”.

Example strategies that reflect systematic and cumulative instruction

• Teach skills in a planned sequence that moves from simple concepts to more complex ones. For example,
  • Teaching sounds for single letters precedes teaching letter combinations.
  • Decoding VC and CVC words precedes decoding CVCC, CCVC words, which precedes CCVCC and CCVCCC words, which in turn precede reading multisyllabic words, and so on.
  • Reading simple texts (shorter sentences, basic words) precedes more complex texts.
• Regularly revisit previously taught skills through brief review and practice opportunities.
• Explicitly connect new content and skills to what students previously learned, for example,
  • Showing how the “tch” letter combination builds on their knowledge of “ch”
  • Teaching the meanings of the word by connecting to words in the students’ vocabulary. For instance, the meaning of the word observe can be taught by connecting to students’ knowledge of what it means to see and to watch.
  • Teaching new background knowledge that builds on students’ existing knowledge. For example, teaching the role of white blood cells using students’ knowledge about firefighters, who quickly respond to fight a fire (i.e., an infection) 

Example strategies that reflect diagnostic and responsive instruction

• Use ongoing formative assessment to monitor student understanding.
• Accelerate instructional pacing based on rapid student progress, versus slowing the pace, reteaching, and including more frequent instruction and practice when progress is slower than expected.
• Regroup students or providing additional practice when data indicate such a need
• Target instruction to specific skill gaps (as revealed by assessment data), rather than reteaching broadly

Cautions and considerations regarding structured literacy

Some considerations and cautions are warranted for educators who are interested in aligning with a structured literacy approach. 

First, some commercial programs and curricula may not mention “structured literacy” or describe themselves as such, yet they still may align with the structured literacy approach, at least in part. Being knowledgeable about the core elements of structured literacy will help educators evaluate the extent to which a program aligns with this perspective. 

Second, adopting a structured literacy approach may not warrant wholesale changes to instruction. In some cases, teachers may just need to make some basic adjustments to instruction, such as making it more explicit or providing more supervised reading practice. 

Third, structured literacy describes a set of research-based instructional elements. To date, no studies have experimentally tested the effects of structured literacy as a whole or “package”. 

Fourth, aligning instruction with the structured literacy approach is not just about teaching the six skill areas described above. It also does not mean that all skill areas would be present in every lesson. The extent to which certain skills are targeted should change dynamically based on the lesson goals and students' reading levels. For example, as students become skilled in reading words, instruction in phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence will fade and eventually disappear. 

Students’ developing proficiency with reading words and text accurately and efficiently means that instruction should focus more on comprehending more challenging texts of different genres and content areas. 

Why a principle-driven approach matters for implementation

One of the most consistent findings from reading research is that an explicit approach to teaching usually yields stronger reading outcomes than non-explicit approaches. Humans learn fastest when we receive clear, unambiguous instructions that provide many opportunities to try the skill and receive feedback on our responses. 

Explicit instruction, the elements it embodies, and other aspects, including systematic and data-driven instruction, are central to structured literacy. Structured literacy directly teaches students how to read and spell words, builds their language and knowledge skills, and integrates these knowledge sources to foster proficient readers. 

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Dive deeper into the science of teaching reading. Learn more about our science of reading curriculum, an evidence-based approach that builds on the components of the science of reading, plus integrates background knowledge and writing.